Key Strategies for Enhancing Farmers Income

Introduction:

Enhancing of farmers income is one of the most important agenda of the central and state governments which can lead to the ambitious plan of doubling farmer’s income by 2022. Increase in total farm output can be one of the strategies but not the only strategy for doubling income. It is essential to focus on a planwhich can ensure a right combination of measures that are relevant for different geographical as well as agro-climatic conditions.

Some of the key strategies are discussed below.

Enhancing crop production through yield increase:

Increase in overall yield or productivity from agricultural or horticultural crops and other related farm enter prizes can be the important single important factor that can increase the income of farmers. Since there is very little scope for area expansion (either through increase in nets own area or through increase in cropping intensity), enhancing the overall productivity is the only way available to enhance production. Bridging yield gaps through had option of recommended good crop production practices, planning profitable crop combinations that can maximize aggregate income, and reducing crop losses through integrated crop management (integrated nutrient/pest/disease/weed management) practices are some of the immediate options that can bring in additional income to the farmers.

Efficient use of water resources:

Water resources are the scarcest resources among the natural resources gifted by the nature. The available water resources is not proportional to the size of cultivable land, dependent population, swelling demands from industry, domestic segment for drinking, sanitation and washing, public uses such as parks and gardens, and hospitality industry etc. As per an estimate by 2050 the global agriculture sector needs to produce 60 percent more, while developing countries need to produce 100 percent more. This target can be met only by improving water productivity and putting in place the right policy mix that supports and ensures efficient use of water resources. Ground water management is one of the important aspects in this regard. There is a need for a paradigm shift in water management in rain fed areas by bringing more dry land under protective irrigation support for bridging dry spell sand for improving agricultural and water productivity through new technological water management options. Anidelay system of irrigation should aimat conjunctiveuse of different sources of water in mutually reinforcing manner while giving due importance to demand moderation and making it compatible with resource endowments of the region. Drip and sprinkler irrigation technology options need to be promoted to manage the demand.

Enhancing productivity from dry lands:

Even after harnessing the fullest possible irrigation potential a large amount of land continues under rainfed conditions. As per an estimate these rainfed or dryland areas are home to 43 percent of our population and receive rainfall between 150 mm and 1000 mm per annum. There is a need to popularize various water management interventions in these drylands. The interventions shall include, adopting an efficient watershed management approach specifying and enforcing clearly defined water rights in watershed communities; reducing vulnerability through rain water harvesting and storage; recharging depleted ground water and aquifers; regulation of ground water extraction; enlisting government support for water saving options; enabling stronger collective action for community development in agriculture and resource management, and enhancing the scientific and technological support to watershed programmes such as land resources inventory(LRI)–hydrology-socioeconomic study based watershed planning as done in Sujala-III program in Karnataka.

Popularizing soil test based nutrient management:

Due to unscientific nutrient management approaches followed by the farmers, the soils are increasingly becoming deficient in micronutrients and the NPK balance has skewed towards nitrogen. The wide spread secondary and micronutrient deficiencies have led to deterioration in soil health leading to low fertilizer response and crop yields in rainfed areas. This degrading soil health trend can be reversed through had option of soil test based application of deficient secondary and micronutrients to harness existing productivity potential on a sustainable basis. The national soil health mission has introduced the issue of soil health cards across the country will be able to address this issue. However programs on education the farmers in this regard are needed for promoting smart

nutrient management practices.

Reducing costs through low external input agriculture and farming systems approach:

The cost of cultivation has been increasing thus reducing the overall profits of the farmers. There is a need to focus on lowering the costs without compromising on the output can lead to the increase the net income. It is possible to do so as there is a general tendency on the part of farmers to apply over dose of fertilizers and pesticides, expecting higher yields. Organic farming, low external input, sustainable agriculture, precision farming, etc. are being promoted with a view to reducing Complementary relations that could exist among farm enterprises are rarely exploited as farmers have been increasingly depending on externally purchased input sand preferring single enterprise rather than a mix of different enterprises. In spite of the advantages of farming systems, their adoption by farmers is not high due to limitation of available production technologies, biophysical or geophysical constraints, labor and input market constraints, financial and credit constraints, social norms, inter-temporal trade-offs, policy constraints, and constraints to knowledge or skills.

Promoting diversification:

Diversification can be a major game changer in enhancing farmer’s income. Diversification can be of three types viz. product (high value enterprises), process (precision farming), and time diversification (delinking from seasonality to prevent price crash with bumper crop). Diversification towards high value crops is required to improve both income and resource use efficiency. Similarly, diversification towards livestock, poultry and non-farm activities is considered ideal, especially for small and marginal farmers who do not possess adequate land to generate enough income for the family. Diversification of agriculture offers food and nutrition security, income growth, diversification of sources of income, poverty alleviation, employment generation, judicious use of land and water resources, sustainable agricultural development, and environmental improvement.

Skill building of farmers:

Since farming in India has been a hereditary occupation of a family, learning how to farm is nearly always limited to traditional practices passed on through generations. The modern agriculture cannot be practiced without proper skilling and professionalization of the farmers. The farmers need to organize resources, collect and leverage information, take crucial decisions and breathe risks which need skilling of farmers. Farming is increasingly transforming in to a skilled job with agricultural markets evolving in the digital space, consumer preferences chemical use. going global, all entrepreneurial functions demanding technical and managerial skills and value chains becoming sophisticated. Present initiatives in farmers’ training such as farmers’ field schools (FFS), Life Long Learning for Farmers (L3F), Training of Local Resource Persons(TLRP) etc, are limited to a few locations in a few states. There is a need for a unified training system, catering to all types of trainings. Besides, there is a need to have distinct modules in school curriculum that teach about our agricultural traditions and practices.

Addressing the constraints of small-marginal farmers:

Due to continued sub division and fragmentation of land has led to the tiny and uneconomical holdings. The small farmers faces several constraints such as Inability to create economies of scale and scope; Low bargaining power due to small marketable surplus; Scarcity of capital; Limited market access; Lack of knowledge and information; Market imperfections, and poor infrastructure and communications. Therefore, aggregation and collectivization of farmers and their resources through farmers companies can be a wonderful solution to the above constraints.

Changing tastes and economic conditions of people:

The changes in recent trends, tastes and preferences of consumers who are creating higher demand for processed, packaged and branded products that meet the food quality standards. Rise in organized retail chains and online markets are selling agricultural products thus are creating a new retail culture. Small and marginal farmers, given their socio-economic profile, can hardly rise to the expectations arising out of such developments. Without effective organization, the small farmers are likely to face several problems with quality aspects and exploitation at the hands of the intermediaries who are controlling value chains. There is a need to organize them effectively into groups to facilitate better incomes is an important concern. FPOs are promoted on a large scale under central and state government support. Such collectivization of farmers into groups is bound to bring the benefits of scale and scope.

Need for Promoting Use of Plastics in Horticulture

Introduction:

The advances in technological developments have modified so much the course of controlled

environment, horticulture in the production of fruits, vegetables, flowers, and ornamentals due to the

recent widespread use of plastic films and related materials in horticulture production. The plastic films are used extensively for the design and covering of new greenhouses; the covering of old conventional glass-greenhouses; for air-inflated, self-contained, or supported bubble houses; as interior curtains and external barriers to reduce heat loss in the conventional greenhouses; and for the containment of CO2 -enriched atmospheres. The plastic films also are used in the construction of high and low tunnels or covers for many row crops, protective covering of seed beds, and for soil mulches. Plastic tubes, laterals, and drip lines are important components of drip irrigation systems for high-value horticultural crop production. Drip irrigation is often a component with plastic soil mulches, crop rowcovers, and plastic greenhouses. Recent introductions using plastic films include peat modules, bag cultures, rockwool, the nutrient-film technique, and non-variable root environments for fieldgrown tomatoes. Plastic components contribute to the precise control of top and root environments of the crop plants. In many modern greenhouses, all plant growing structures, other than the root media itself are plastic.

Benefits of plastics:

The use of plastics has proved beneficial to promote the judicious utilization of important natural resources like soil, water, sunlight and temperature. Use of plastics in agriculture or ‘Plasticulture’ provides several benefits like;

• Effective control on pest and disease infestations

• Improves the economic efficiency of production

systems

• User friendly maintenance

• Efficient water and energy management

• Reduced temperature fluctuations

• Reduced moisture fluctuations

• Precise irrigation and nutrient applications and

reduced wastage

• Reduction in soil erosion

Use of plasticulture in micro irrigation:

Micro Irrigation One of the major sectors of application of plastics in horticulture is in the area of water management and conservation. The drip or micro irrigation includes emitting water by drippers, microsprinklers, mini-sprinklers, micro-jets, misters, fan jets, micro-sprayers foggers, emitting pipes, micro-tubes and similar other emitting pipes. Micro irrigation Technology can be used both on the surface as well as sub-surface areas which helps in increasing productivity by 30 to 100 percent with 50 to 70 percent saving of water. There is enhanced water use efficiency (WUE). Micro irrigation saves the energy as compared to sprinkler and conventional methods. Sprinkler irrigation enables water to be sprinkled with the help of a network of pipes and sprinklers (nozzles) on the plant foliage. Sprinkler irrigation system has become popular as a method of irrigation, especially under undulating topography, particularly for light textured soils for a variety of horticultural crops. The fertilizer use efficiency can also be enhanced when it is applied through drip irrigation. Increased productivity with saving of 30 to 40 per cent of fertilizer can be achieved through fertigation.

Initially, the central government launched a scheme on use of plastics in agriculture during the 8th plan, duly earmarking 200 crore for drip irrigation. The scheme was continued during the 9th plan under the title "Development of Horticulture" through Plasticulture Applications with an outlay of INR. 375 crore out of which INR. 300 crore was for drip irrigation. During 2003, the central government constituted a Task Force on Micro Irrigation to assess the scope and potential of the technology and to suggest strategies for its promotion in the country. The Task Force gave several recommendations for promoting Micro- irrigation in the country. Based on the recommendations of the Task Force on Micro irrigation several initiatives have been taken up by the central and state governments which has resulted in brining of lot of area under micro irrigation. The plasticulture programme, which started as a subsidy scheme is now a demand driven program in Karnataka and other states like Maharashtra, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. As a result of all these efforts, India has now emerged as one of the leading countries in using micro irrigation technology and plasticulture.

Plasticulture for popularizing Fertigation:

Fertigation need to be popularized for intensive and economical crop production, where both water and nutrients are supplied to growing crops through micro irrigation system. Fertigation provides major and micro nutrients directly to the active root zone, thus minimising losses of expensive nutrients, which ultimately helps in improving productivity and quality of farm produce apart from savings in the time and labour. Research studies have shown that fertigation economizes use of fertilizer and water to the tune of 40-60 percent. Farmers are using fertigation in grapes, pomegranate and banana crops in Karnataka and of late are being followed by small and resource poor farmers due to some schemes of Government of Karnataka. Fertigation is ideally suited for hi-tech horticultural production. Though micro irrigation has found widespread use in plantation and horticultural crop production, fertigation is confined to few high value crops.

Plasticulture in promoting protected cultivation:

Optimum growth of plants is governed by the availability and use of soil, water and sunlight. However, climatic variations often tend to have adverse effects on the yield and production of crops. There is a need to focus our efforts on harnessing the natural resources through artificial means for increasing crop productivity. One such technology is protected cultivation or green house cultivation. Greenhouses are framed or inflated structures covered with plastic material or glass in which crops can be grown under partially controlled environment which is large enough to permit normal cultural operation manually. Large greenhouses are usually constructed for export oriented flower production. Greenhouse technology was well adapted in Europe and USA by the end of the nineteenth century. Currently, China and Japan are the leading countries. Other countries where green house technology is being widely used are Netherlands, Israel, Canada, Spain and Egypt besides some Arab countries. Green house technology is currently catching up in India also. Green houses are suitable for growing a variety of vegetables, fruits and flowers. In addition to temperature control, there will be protection from wind, soil warming and in some cases, protection against insects, pest and diseases, thus helping in enhanced maturity of crop, increased yields, improved quality of produce and in some instances it can reduce the use of insecticides and pesticides. The total time for preparation of seedlings and cuttings also gets reduced significantly by the use of green house technology. Greenhouse is also essential for plant propagation through tissue culture. Considering the advantages of greenhouse, there is ample scope for encouraging area under protected cultivation of high value flowers and vegetables out of season, both in the temperate and tropical climate. However, profitability in green house cultivation will depend upon the choice of greenhouse structure, selection of crops and varieties and production technologies adopted. While the conventional greenhouses are simple structures, the hitech greenhouses have facilities for controlling light intensity, temperature, humidity with complete automation of the system. The constraint in adoption of green house is mainly the high investment required on equipments.

Indian horticulture, which was hitherto an individual activity, became corporate driven, which could

sense the potential and scope the modern protected cultivation technology. Refinement in protected

cultivation technology is being carried out in different ICAR institutions, state horticulture and agricultural universities. Different designs of glasshouse and polyhouses are being developed. Besides above-ground greenhouses, underground green houses were also being tried. Polytunnels and poly crop cover has also been tried.

Plasticulture in Mulching:

Plastics are popularly used for mulching in horticultural production. Mulching has been helpful not only in preventing moisture loss through evaporation from the and lowering the temperature, but also in reducing nutrient losses by leaching and weed control where chemical fertilizers and weedicides are used. Mulching also reduces run-off, increase penetration of rainwater, controls erosion, corrects the chemical balance of the soil and reduces damage done by pests and diseases. Soil moisture could be conserved through mulching either with black polyethylene or locally available mulches, growing cover crops or inter-culturing in the orchards to check soil erosion and runoff of rain water.

Plasticulture in promotion of sub-surface drainage system:

Sub-surface drainage is a proven technology in reclaiming saline and water logged land and restoring

the productivity of the land to its full potential. The subsurface drainage is designed to lower the water table to a level, which allows optimum root development and prevents the capillary movement of salts into the root zone. The basic principle of sub-soil drainage is that a set of corrugated/perforated PVC pipes is laid in a systematic order to collect excess from the water logged

soil. The water so collected is led into a collector pipe system, which in turn drains into the main drains. Some of the advantages of sub surface drainage systems are: (a) useful in removing soil salinity and reducing water logging (ii) helps to control run-off and flood waters (iii) It requires less maintenance and long life and most reliable system. This technology needs to be promoted in the areas covered under horticultural crops which are affected by soil salinity and water logging.

Way Forward:

Though the use of plastics in Indian horticulture was late compared to different countries of the world, its promotion should be top on the priority programmes of the both central and state governments. The plasticulture based technologies can help the farmers in better utilization of resources in different geographical locations for production of good quality horticulture produce which can fetch better prices for the farmers. It also opens up avenues in export of quality produce

and processing sectors. The different programmes on use of plastics should be promoted more rigorously. The research institutions need to pay more emphasis on use of plastics in horticulture production.

Horticulture - The Growth Engine of Farm Sector

Introduction:

Horticulture sector is gaining more and more importance in the recent years among the farmers as it has wide scope covering range of crops such as fruit crops, vegetable crops, tuber crops, ornamental crops, medicinal and aromatic crops, spices and plantation crops etc. The diverse agro-climatic conditions prevailing in the country coupled with wide variability of soils has made it possible for the farmers to grow a large number of horticultural crops. Horticulture sector is the fastest growing sector within agriculture and it contributes in poverty alleviation, nutritional security and has ample scope for farmers to increase their income and livelihoods. The sector also supports a large number of agro-based industries which generate huge employment opportunities. India has emerged as the world's largest producer of coconut and the second largest producer and exporter of tea, coffee, cashew and spices. Only 2 percent of horticulture produce is processed, 0.4 percent is exported and 22 percent is lost or get wasted in market chain. Exports of fresh and processed fruits, vegetables, cut flowers, dried flowers have also been on the rise. The demand for variety of horticultural products is growing rapidly especially burgeoning market for processed fruits and vegetables as well as booming horticulture market is an evidence of the phenomenon growth which is expected to accelerate horticultural growth in the country. With such a trend the horticulture sector is set to assume a greater role and importance within the agriculture sector and eventually in the national economy. As a result of a number of innovations by researchers, thoughtful policy initiatives, institutional reforms availability of quality inputs, horticulture has become a sustainable and viable option for the small and marginal farmers. Lot of rural entrepreneurs are coming forward for taking up horticulture as a commercial venture.

Therefore, there is a great scope for the accelerating agricultural development through expansion of

horticultural crops and in the days to come horticulture is expected to be the growth engine of farm
sector.

Institutional and policy support for development of horticulture:

The horticultural sector has received lot of institutional support both by central and state governments. The National Horticulture Board has framed several programs in support of the development of horticulture sector. It has been encouraging the development of commercial horticulture through demonstration farms; developing post harvest management infrastructure; strengthening market information systems and maintaining horticultural database; assisting research

and development programmers and providing training and education to farmers and the processing industry for improving agronomic practices and adoption of new technologies.

Exploring opportunities for exports:

There are several opportunities for promotion of horticulture exports. (1) There is a need to promote

organic production of horticulture commodities and develop technologies for organic horticulture and

create awareness. There is also a need to develop guidelines and designate agencies for accreditation of such produce meeting international requirements. (2) There is vast scope of reducing imports of horticultural commodities like dates, nuts like almond, palm oil, raisins, cocoa and rubber. Area under such commodities needs to be increased. There is also need to develop commercial plantations of fruits like mangoes, Duran, longan, ambulant, etc (3) The need for having adequate, reliable and timely data in respect of import of commodities is necessary in the context of opening up of the economy. There should be on line records about quantity, value, quality, etc., of the commodities imported in the country so that both the government and interested entrepreneurs could make use of this information for various purposes. (4) India being a tropical country, it is necessary to concentrate efforts on tropical horticultural crops such as fruits like mango, litchi, sapota, passion fruit, aonla, bael and guava and plantation crops like coconut, cashew, cardamon, black pepper, tea and coffee. Since most of the developed and importing countries are in the temperate region the chances of increasing our market share with such crops in this region are more. Apart from this, India is also very rich in medicinal plants. (5) In the light of recent changes in the international trade, to exploit the potential for export of horticulture produce to its full capacity, sincere efforts are required to develop a full fledged Quality Assurance Machinery.

Addressing constraints in development of development of horticulture:

• Inadequate infrastructure: Horticulture produce is mostly perishable in nature that contributes to heavy losses in the availability and quality after harvest of crops and makes investment risk oriented. The post harvest handling accounts for 20 to 40 percent of the losses at different stages of grading, packing, storage, transport and finally marketing of both fresh and processed products. Such an enormous loss has proved a great handicap in tapping full production potential of the sector. The production and marketing of these commodities also suffer from the crippling uncertainty and instability of the domestic as well as export market conditions.

• Price fluctuations: Price fluctuations are common in horticulture sector also which lead to glut situation in individual commodities resulting in exploitation of the small and marginal farmers by the intermediaries. Insufficient technologies for commercial utilization of by-products and value added products also act as a damper for handling horticulture produce. Lack of sufficient processing units for production of quality output is a major bottleneck for these crops. Lack of adequate standards for quality produce also hinders the export prospects of these crops. As small and marginal growers predominate the production sector, individual processing facilities are not available due to lack of skill as well as investment capability which needs to be addressed through some policy interventions.

• Poor Marketing Infrastructure: Marketing is a major constraint and has a major role to play in

making the sector viable. Various intermediaries and cooperatives are involved in marketing. In some case fruits, the owners to the pre-harvest contractors also auction vegetables and flowers. The pre-harvest contract could be for one or even three years in perennial crops. The returns from such arrangements are very low. Such sales also result in poor upkeep of the orchards and the contractors

hesitate to make further investment in the upkeep of such orchards.

• High Investments: The high capital cost involved in establishing an orchard or rejuvenation of existing old unproductive plantation poses serious constraint in area expansion under these crops. The situation becomes all the more difficult in view of the large number of small holdings devoted to these crops which are essentially owned by weaker section, who have no means to invest, nor can afford to stand the burden of credit even if available.

• Long Gestation period: Most of fruits and plantation crops have long gestation period. This calls for liberalized credit facilities in easy instalments for repayment in the form of soft loans to small and

marginal farmers to be introduced if the benefits of the horticulture industry are to be fully exploited.

High cost of inputs and lack of enough incentives for production of quality varieties /species, product

diversification, value addition, etc. also hinder crops development.

• Post Harvest Losses: The horticulture produce suffers heavy post-harvest losses in the absence of

adequate post-harvest and marketing infrastructure viz; pre-cooling units, packing and grading sheds,

short and long term cold storage facilities, refrigerated containers, storage and phyto-sanitary facilities at airports. To minimize these losses, it is essential to analyse the contributing factors which

result into these losses.

• Bottlenecks in marketing: The horticulture marketing practices lack systems approach. The trading and marketing structure is very traditional and consists of a long chain of intermediaries. The

farm-gate price available to the farmers is only 25 percent of the retail price under Indian conditions

whereas the same is 70 percent in case of Dutch and US farmers, where more efficient marketing

system is in place.

• Distress sale of the Produce: Majority of the farmers sell their produce at the farm level to the village merchants, retailers, big producers or pre-harvest contractors due to urgent cash needs. They can not afford to transport their produce to the distant markets on account of non-availability of transport facilities, high transportation cost, malpractices in the market.

• Market Distortions: Trade and market distortions are many and some of these are high and unjust

trading and market charges levied on producersellers, delayed payment, pooling by traders and lack of open bid system. Malpractices are rampant and the national market operates in a highly segmented manner.

• Market Intelligence: Information regarding demand, supply, price, market outlook, knowledge of consumers’ preference, marketing channels and practices are important for marketing of horticulture produce, which is limited to the terminal markets only at the moment. There is also lack of knowledge and equipment for grading and packaging of fruits and vegetables. All these points need to be addressed.

• Exploitation by intermediaries: Small growers are un-organized and lack group action and bargaining power, as a result these farmers are exploited by the traders. The small and marginal farmers are not attended to properly by the commission agents. Small and marginal farmers have to wait for a long period for auction of their produce. This issue can be addressed through farm producers companies or any other innovative institutional mechanism.

The horticulture sector can grow at a faster pace by addressing above constraints and adopting strategies to address production and post production issues. These strategies shall include, improving productivity and production; reducing cost of production; improving quality of products for exports; value addition; marketing and export; price stabilization; strengthening of organizational support ;human resource development and addressing relevant policy issues.

Crop Diversification - A Strategy to Improve Agricultural Production

Introduction:

Farming continues to be the major source of food, nutrition, income and employment for the most of

the rural population in India. The country’s farming is characterized by presence of a large number of

small and marginal scale farmers with small farm holdings. However, the country is blessed with diverse agro-climatic conditions which enable the farmers to produce a large number of agricultural commodities. The challenge of producing enough food for the growing population with the reducing holdings is a herculean task. With the development of commercial agriculture techniques during the post independent period the agriculture sector has been able to cater to the domestic and international markets. In the light of the focus on commercial farming the rich tradition of crop diversity of Indian farming lasts its glory. Few crops are occupying major production area and are grown repeatedly year

after year. This has resulted in emergence of several field levels biotic and abiotic constraints and overall reduction in the benefits realized from farming.

Crop diversification provides the farmers with a wider choice in the production of a variety of crops in a given area so as to expand production related activities on various crops and also to bring down the possible risk. Crop diversification in India is generally viewed as a shift from traditionally grown less remunerative crops to more remunerative crops. The crop diversification is also taking place due to governmental policies, thrust on some crops, market reforms, infrastructure development, government subsidies, certain other price related support mechanisms, higher profitability and stability in production also induces crop diversification. Crop diversification and growing of large number of crops are practiced in dry-land areas to reduce the risk factor of crop failures due to recurring droughts. Crop substitution and crop shift are also taking place in the areas suffering with some specific soil related problems.

The country has made considerable progress in the farm sector during the last 50 years. From 'hand to mouth' conditions in the early sixties, the country has not only become self reliant in food grains but have acquired sufficient resilience to tide over the adverse conditions. The achievements in food production is the outcome of a policy framework of improving rural infrastructure, including irrigation, research, extension, provision of agricultural inputs at reasonable prices, mechanization in farming, marketing support through minimum price mechanism, promotion of FPOs etc.

Factors responsible for crop diversification:

With the introduction of scientific and modern agricultural technologies, there is a continuous surge

for diversified agriculture. The changes in crop pattern, however, are the outcome of the interaction effect of many factors such as (a) Resource related factors, mainly irrigation, rainfall and soil health (b) Technology related factors, mainly seed, fertilizer, water use, marketing, storage and post harvest processing (c) Household related factors mainly food and fodder self-sufficiency requirement as well as investment capacity of the farmers (d) Price related factors covering output and input prices, trade and other economic policies that affect these prices (e) Institutional and infrastructure related factors covering farm size and tenancy issues, research, extension and regulatory policies of the government. These factors are highly inter-related. The economic liberalization policies as well as the globalization process are also exerting strong pressures on the area allocation decision of farmers, essentially through their impact on the relative prices of inputs and outputs. While factors such as food and fodder self-sufficiency, farm size, and investment constraints are important in influencing the area allocation pattern among smaller farms, larger farmers with an ability to circumvent resources constraints usually go more by economic considerations based on relative crop prices than by other non-economic considerations. Similarly, economic factors play a relatively stronger role in influencing the crop pattern in areas with a better irrigation and infrastructure potential. In such areas, commercialization and market networks co-evolve to make the farmers more dynamic and highly responsive to economic impulses.

Consequences of changes in cropping pattern:

Various initiatives that have led to the changes in cropping pattern as discussed above have also brought in several socio-economic and environmental consequences. Introduction of high yielding verities, hybrids and intensive crop production technologies have fomented, among other things, an increasing tendency towards crop specialization and commercialization of agriculture. While these developments have positive effects on land/labour productivity and net farm income, they also endangered a number of undesirable side effects like reduced farm employment and crop imbalances

and loss of crop diversity at the farm level. Although the expansion of commercialized agriculture has fomented new sets of rural non-farm activities and strengthened the rural-urban growth linkages, it has also weakened the traditional inter-sectoral linkages between the crop and livestock sectors. Besides, crop pattern changes also lead to serious environmental consequences that take such forms as groundwater depletion, soil fertility loss and water logging and salinity - all of which can reduce the productive capacity and growth potential of agriculture over the long-term. Crop diversification as a strategy for food and nutritional security and poverty alleviation: Crop diversification can be used as a strategy for addressing food and nutritional security. The diversification of horticultural crops, especially fruits and vegetables have been very important in ensuring nutrition security. This also has played a pivotal role in poverty reduction. It is not only in the increase of food grain production, but also the production of commercial crops like cotton, oilseeds, sugar cane, fruits and

vegetables as well as livestock production including fisheries have contributed significantly to poverty reduction. Crop diversification can help the farmers in addressing the important determinants of poverty, such as (I) lack of income and purchasing power (ii) lack of productive employment (iii) the continuous increase in price of food, (VI) inadequacy of social infrastructure, affecting the quality of life of the people and their employability. The governments at the centre and the state are focussing on doubling food production with a focus on food grains such as rice, wheat, coarse cereals, pulses; oilseeds; sugar cane; fruits and vegetables; meat; milk and fish. The Action Plan envisages a detailed strategy and specific problems of productivity to substantially increase the supply of various food items in such a way that the demand for such items for the entire population is comfortably met and some exportable surplus also becomes available.

Crop diversification as strategy for issues of natural resource management:
Subdivision and fragmentation of land holdings in the country apart from diversion of cultivable land for various other purposes provide very little scope for further expansion of the net sown area (142 m/ha) and that land scarcity will become an acute feature of the rural economy. Water is another important natural resource which is facing several challenges and there are several concerns regarding water resources in the country and the states. Therefore, a judicious use of land and water resources will have to be thecentral theme for sustainability of agricultural growth. There has been a growing concern in recent years about the deteriorating conditions of soil health and water resources due to unscientific management. The deterioration in land and water resources has been in the form of land degradation, water logging and decline in water table. There is a greater need to have an integrated approach in the management of plant nutrients, chemicals and taking effective measures to deal with the overall pollution problems. There are several possible technologies and alternatives to reduce the use of chemicals in agriculture. Programmes for regeneration of land and water resources need to be strengthened. Scientific crop diversification options are to be planned suiting the land capabilities.

Opportunities in crop diversification due to globalization:

With the advent of WTO and India being a member and signatory to GATT, the scenario of the agricultural sector cannot be the same as that of past. With the liberalization of trade and providing the market access of agricultural produce between the different countries, the country will be required to promote much more diversified agriculture. The crops which are traditionally exported like basmati rice and spices and condiments also need to be supported in terms of area expansion and quality improvement to look towards much more opportunity for export. Crop diversification in the areas of certain tropical fruits and also a few vegetables also need support for both production and postharvest handling in terms of their export opportunity. Accelerated growth in fruits and vegetables production is also required for improved nutrition of the country's population. In future, with improved living standards along with increased purchasing power, more and more people will look for nutritional and quality foods which will also call for greater crop diversification. There are some production areas such as food crops, plantation crops, poultry, dairy, sugar, cotton and oilseeds in which India has made its mark. There are some in which its emerging strength is already evident - sericulture, marine and inland fisheries, for example. There are also others which now attract less attention, but in which the competitive advantages that India possesses can put it on the top of the world. No country grows such a wide range of fruits, vegetables, and flowers and in such abundance as India and yet it has no record worth mentioning in horticultural exports. The rich variety when processed and marketed can help India take care of the health needs of its population besides being

major export commodities.

Research and developmental support for crop diversification:

In order to support the crop diversification, sound research and development initiatives are essential. The future agriculture is much more science knowledge and skill based rather than the traditional subsistence agriculture. In the wake of globalization and opening up of several opportunities in the global market, there will be much more opportunity for entrepreneurship development in agriculture. This also calls for paradigm shifts in research and technology development and also the transfer of technology for successful crop diversification. The research system not only needs to address the issues connected with continuance and indulgence and knowledge in the areas of emerging technologies, but also create a cadre of scientists through the continuous upgrade of skills and human resource development. The researchers also need to popularize the technologies, impart knowledge and skills to the extension functionaries for the transfer of technologies to the farmers. The use of ICT in agriculture can be one solution for transfer of technologies. The revolution brought about by the mobile telecommunication can be used to the advantage of transfer of technologies to the

farmers.

Institutional and infrastructure developments in support of crop diversification:

To sustain and operationalize crop diversification, institutional support is required. Crop diversification in terms of reducing the risk of rain-fed farmers is vital for India. However, crop diversification in well endowed area is more of an economic consideration. The National Agricultural Research System with its Crop and Commodity based Institutions, Natural Research Management Based Institutions and State Agricultural Universities are jointly addressing the issues connected with the crop diversification. The government of India has also developed a counter support mechanism through the establishments of Crop Directorates for each of the major crops and groups of crops for development and technology transfer focus on each of these crops and commodities. These Directorates act as coordinating agencies between the research and development activities on the one hand and between the central and state governments for technology transfer and other promotional activities.

Policies and strategies for crop diversification:

Realizing the importance of crop diversification, the central and state governments have taken several

initiatives. Horticulture sector has been given highest importance considering its importance in nutrition security. Some of the important programs of the government include,(a)launching of National Horticulture Mission (b)Launching of Technology Mission for the Integrated Development of Horticulture in the North-Eastern Region (c)Implementing National Agriculture Insurance Scheme (d) Operationalizing Technology Mission on Cotton(e) Provision of Capital Subsidy for construction/modernization/expansion of cold storages and storages for horticultural produce (f)Creation of Watershed Development Fund at the National level for the development of rain-fed areas.(g) Infrastructure Support for Horticultural Development(h) Strengthening Agricultural Marketing (i)Seed Bank Scheme (k) Cooperative Sector Reforms etc are some examples. Similarly state of Karnataka has also initiated several programs that directly and indirectly support crop diversification in the state.

Maggi with 57 per cent share regains top slot in noodles market

Nestle India's instant noodle brand Maggi, whose sales was severally hit by FSSAI ban last year, has regained its leadership position+ capturing 57 percent share of the market in June this year. Within nine months of its re-launch, Maggi noodles now accounts for 57.1 percent market share of the instant noodles segment riding on its marketing/ branding initiatives and new variants. In November, after five month of ban, the company relaunched Maggi, it had 10.9 percent of the market share, which climbed to 35.2 percent in December, according to a Nestle India presentation made to financial analysts and institutional investors. In March 2016, it had 51 percent market share. Nestle says that it has regained leading market share after growth in India turned positive in June on good progress with relaunch of Maggi noodle. Growth in India turned positive in June due to good progress with the Maggi noodle relaunch and favourable comparables.

Source: www.timesofindia.indiatimes.com

Mahindra Agri Solutions launches four variants of NuPro pulses in Mumbai

Mahindra Agri Solutions Limited (MASL), a 100 per cent subsidiary of Mahindra and Mahindra Ltd, launched four new varieties of NuPro pulses in Mumbai. The brand’s portfolio includes Chana Dal, Moong Dal, Masoor Dal and Urad Dal.

NuPro pulses are free from chemical ingredients; ensuring consumers of the purest form of pulses.

They are available across 4,300 outlets across Mumbai in packs of 500g and 1kg. We are confident that with Mahindra’s inherent farmer connect and robust quality processes classified under Mahindra Quality Standards (MQS), NuPro will become a preferred brand of pulses in the market,” he added.

Further, NuPro products comply with the most stringent food safety guidelines laid out by the Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI). The company also stamps its products with the MQS seal. Mahindra will soon expand its footprint in other related value-added products such as besan and increase in its presence to other neighbouring cities over the next three years.

Source: www.fnbnews.com

Tata Coffee hits 52-week high as Q1 profit more than doubles

Tata Coffee has rallied nearly 15 percent to INR 132, also its 52-week high on the BSE in intra-day trade, after its consolidated net profit more than doubles to INR 64 crore for the quarter ended June (Q1FY17), on the back of strong operational income. The Tata Group Company had registered a profit of INR 27 crore in the corresponding quarter last fiscal. Total income from operations of the company during the quarter under review increased 21 percent year to year at INR 426 crore against INR 352 crore in the corresponding quarter of previous fiscal. The raw material costs declined 14 percent to INR 125 crore in Q1FY17 from INR 146 crore in the year-ago quarter.

Source: www.business-standard.com

FSSAI makes draft standards on making instant noodles public

Food Safety and Standards Authority (FSSAI) has been putting public domain by draft of standards regarding manufacturing of instant noodles, specifying the ingredients used, quality and safety parameters.

Minister of state for health Faggan Singh Kulaste, says that “ the raw material can be prepared from wheat flour and/or rice flour and/or flour of any other cereals, millets, legumes and water as the main ingredients, with or without addition of spices”. Kulaste also says starches, dried fruits and vegetables, nuts, edible protein and egg powder may be added, if required. The standards also provide that the product shall be of good characteristic colour, appearance, texture, aroma and taste and shall

be free from added colour, undesirable taste, dirt, insect’s larvae and impurities or any other extraneous matter.

The limits for moisture, acid insoluble ash and acid value have also been specified in these standards.

The minister said in case of any violation of labelling requirement, action under the provisions of the Food Safety and Standards Act 2006 and regulations they will be undertaken by the state authorities concerned.

Source: www.financial express.com

Kwality Milk Foods launches milkshakes, flavoured milk in three flavours

Kwality Milk Foods Ltd launched milkshakes in three flavours (vanilla, strawberry and chocolate), flavoured milk in three flavours (Badam Drink, Strawberry Delight and Chocolate Treat), UHT milk, canned drinks and malt-based foods. The company has a state-of-the-art UHT milk processing plant for manufacturing liquid milk. It is among the few companies which offer UHT milk in multi-layered pouch packs and multi-layered laminate packs. It has a shelf life of three months.

Kwality Milk Foods Ltd will soon roll out badam milk and flavoured milk in 200ml cans. It expects very substantial markets in India and the Middle East. The company has set up a plant to manufacture malt-based food under the brand name Molto. It intends to launch both brown and white malt products.

Source: www.fnbnews.com

At New Sardar Market, Surat APMC to set up fruit pulp processing plant

The Surat Agriculture Produce Marketing Committee will soon set up a processing plant

for fruit pulp at New Sardar Market in the city, which is slated to become operational in December 2017. The processing fruits will be such as mangoes (on a seasonal basis), guavas, papayas, pineapples and tomatoes. The pulp will be exported to companies based in the United Kingdom, the United States and the Middle East.”

The plant would be set up for benefit of the farmers. Most of the time, when the prices of these fruits

decrease, we will process them into pulp and export it, giving good returns to the farmers.” The facility will have a capacity of 72 metric tonne per day.

Source: www.fnbnews.com

Lavazza India launches Single Serve & Oro Aroma in Made in India range

Lavazza India extended its portfolio with the launch of two new products - Single Serve and Oro Aroma - in its Made in India range. Single Serve marks the company’s foray into the sachet segment in India, whereas Oro Aroma is an addition to Lavazza’s existing range of coffee beans. It has the sweet and fruity notes of dates, and can be served as an espresso, cappuccino or a latte macchiato.

Source: www.fnbnews.com

ICRISAT, SAARC arm sign pact
South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) and the International Crops Research
Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) have signed an agreement. SAARC’s Agriculture Centre (SAC) and ICRISAT would work on building a network to accelerate the use of technologies in agriculture in the eight South Asian countries. “ICRISAT and SAC will look for opportunities to carry out joint research in areas of mutual interest by sharing existing resources .This will contribute to the mediumterm food and nutritional security in the region,” said ICRISAT Director General David Bergvinson . The poor people of these areas are also the most vulnerable to climate change and variability.

The research would focus on developing technologies that can improve production and increase sustained productivity in stress prone areas. This will help smallholder farmers to adopt these new and improved technologies to increase food production and raise their incomes in areas of limited water.

Source: www.thehindubusinessline.com

NCDEX rejects 50% coriander on quality issues

The National Commodity and Derivatives Exchange have rejected 50 percent of the coriander bought

into its approved warehouse following complaints on quality by traders. In past one year, the exchange had to suspend trading in castorseed and chana due to sharp run up in prices and regulatory

issues.

The exchange has received complaints from traders about possibility of coriander of inferior quality being deposited at the exchange-approved warehouses. Following this, the exchange deployed its officials at various delivery locations to monitor quality of deposits and sensitise warehouse service provides to traders’ concerns. It also appointed an independent assayer to conduct quality audits of stocks in approved warehouses. The exchange has mandated a stringent process for accepting deposits at the approved warehouses, besides putting in place suitable controls to ensure that warehouses always adhere to norms.

Source: www.thehindubusinessline.com

IRRI wants Asian rice growers’ action plan

The International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) is pushing for rice research and innovation collaboration among rice-growing countries in Asia, in time for an upcoming ASEAN conference on agriculture and forestry in Puerto Princesa, Palawan.

Dr. Matthew Morell, IRRI director general, says a 10-point action plan before agriculture leaders to ensure that rice remains available and affordable across the region will be introduced, especially amid the challenges brought about by climate change. The initiative aims to create technology collaboration between the countries that may improve the genetic resources of rice varieties. The venture also hopes to develop rice varieties that are adaptive to region-specific conditions of drought,

flooding and salinity.

In 2013, India, Nepal, and Bangladesh entered into a similar agreement which allowed the sharing of rice varieties between these countries. “Now is the time for ASEAN to make this commitment. A joint investment in rice breeding can achieve food security for the entire region as well as create inclusive economic growth in the rice industry,” says Morell.

Source: www.mb.com.ph

ICRISAT, IIMR, Karnataka govt to promote millets

The International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT), Indian Institute of Millets Research (IIMR) and the Karnataka Government will form a consortium along with other stakeholders to promote millets.

The consortium will work on product development and build a brand for Karnataka ragi (finger millet).They are highly nutritious and have health benefits, use less water and have high drought tolerance and increasing their market value benefits farmers,” says David Bergvinson, Director-General of ICRISAT. The stakeholders agreed to work on an action plan that would include forming a

public private consortium of partners. A more detailed road map will be planned over the next few months.

Source: www.thehindubusinessline.com

Pulses production may exceed 20 Mt in FY17
Pulses production may touch a record 20 million tonnes (Mt) in 2016-17 (highest since 1957) as
the sowing of pulses increased by 35.46 percent in the ongoing kharif season. Encouraged by better returns, farmers have diverted to pulses from rice, coarse grains and soybean in many states.

The rise of INR 600 per quintal in average pulse MSP has played a major role in the increase in area sown under pulse and eventually higher production. As per data from the agriculture department of India, area under pulses has reached 13.60 million hectares as against 10.05 million hectares in corresponding period of 2015. Rise in pulse MSPs and extraction of higher yields per hectare from sugarcane plantations through the use of technology and fertilisers has extensively helped these

agricultural gains.

About 67 percent of domestic pulse production takes place during the rabi season and an additional 13 Mt are expected to enter the market by the end of Q4 2016- 17 and beginning of next financial year. With domestic demand for pulses of about 24 Mt for the current year, a shortfall of 3.2 Mt is expected. India's agreement with African countries such as Mozambique for import of pulses will further adds five million tonnes of buffer stock to this aggregate.
Source:www.business-standard.com

FCI restricts wheat sale to bulk buyers

The Food Corporation of India has decided to restrict the upper limit of wheat a trader or bulk consumer may buy at a single e-auction in open market sales, from 5,000 tonnes till now to only 500 tonnes.

The aim is to ensure against hoarding by bulk buyers, with apprehension of a repeat on what had happened with pulses last year (surging prices and record high import of six million tonnes) and then for sugar, where a situation of plenty got converted to scarcity. As for wheat, part of the staple diet for so many Indians, its price in the Delhi market has risen by 16 percent since April. It appears the prices would stay firm, as supply is dwindling.

The stock with the government is falling and the new crop will come only in March. It is estimated to be better, due to enough rain in this kharif season (and if winter is also satisfactory). However, falling stocks will keep the market tight. Globally, as wheat prices are down 12 percent since April, the government will be opening the doors for import.

Source: www.Business-standard.com

Agri scientists identify 8 varieties of wheat for better yield

Agriculture scientists have identified eight varieties of wheat and one of barley across the country, says officials of the Haryana government. This was informed at the '55th All India Wheat & Barley Research Workers' meet. About 500 participants including scientists from all over the country took part in the four-day event. The aim of the event is to increase the productivity of wheat, the plenary session came with the recommendation of eight wheat varieties and one barley variety in various zones of India.

In North-Eastern Zone consisting of the states, namely, UP, Bihar, Jharkhand, West Bengal (excluding hills), Orissa, Assam, two varieties - HD 3171 and K 1317 were identified on the basis of their superiority of yield along with resistance to leaf rust and leaf blight diseases. In the Central Zone's Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Gujarat, Kota and Udaipur divisions of Rajasthan and Jhansi division of UP, a pasta product making variety HI 8759 (d) was identified because of its superiority in yield

along with resistance to rusts and nutrient quality.

For Peninsular Zone comprising Maharashtra and Karnataka, a durum wheat variety - 3949 (d) and a variety for chapati making - HI 1605 were identified. For North Western Plain Zone, the variety -PBW 723 was identified because of resistance to yellow rust races over parental variety PBW 343. In addition, a barley variety -- DWRB 123 was identified due to superiority in yield and quality.

Source: www.business-standard.com

Future of supply and market chain management with regards to fruits and vegetables

Introduction

India is one of the leading producers of variety of horticultural crops in the world and is one among

the world’s five largest producers of over 80 per cent agricultural produce, including many horticultural crops. The vast geographical area and varied climatic conditions prevailing in the country help the farmers to produce a variety of fruits and vegetables. Among the horticultural crops grown in the country, greater emphasis is given to vegetables like tomato, brinjal, chilli, cauliflower,

cabbage, peas, potatoes, onions, common cucurbits and other leafy vegetables which are in high demand. These crops also help in generating higher income and employment opportunities, particularly for the small and marginal farmers throughout the year. However there are several constraints in marketing of these commodities. The country need to develop an efficient supply chain for the distribution of fruits and vegetables.

Supply chain management plays a pivotal role in minimizing operational costs and profitability as high as possible. Of the several factors of supply chain, flow is one of the most important factors. Flow refers to the product flow, the information flow and flow of finance. The product flow mainly includes the movement of goods from farmers to consumers, as well as any customer returns or service needs. The information flow involves transmitting orders and updating the status of delivery and while the finance flow includes all the financial aspects such as invoices and payments. The present challenge in supply chain management is to maintain all three flows in a most efficient manner, resulting in optimal results for farmers, wholesalers and the consumers.

Overview of Fruits and Vegetables Production

In India per capita availability of fruits and vegetables is low due to post harvest losses which account for about 25% to 30% of production. Besides quality, sizable quantity of produce deteriorates by the time it reaches the ultimate consumer. Most of the problems relating to the marketing of fruits and vegetables can be traced to their perishability. Perishability of fruits and vegetables is one of the main reasons for high marketing costs, market gluts, price fluctuations and other similar problems. There is a rise of about 4% in the production of fruits and vegetables but there is significant increase in production area also which results in low per hectare production. This phenomenon is caused due to various factors in which economic and technological factors lead the race. There is a need to educate the farmers of the latest technological innovations and also help them by providing support in getting latest technologies and proper supply chain management interventions.

With rise in the population of middle and upper middle class coupled with increase in number of working couples, the demand for semi-processed foods, fast foods, packed foods, ready-to-eat foods has increased in the recent years. The change in taste and preference of consumption are driven by longer working hours, increasing incomes, exposure to advertising, comfort and convenience etc. As urban population is becoming increasingly health and hygiene conscious, they prefer to buy any food and food products either from super markets and modern retail stores instead of conventional markets. This has led to the entry of more number of organized retailers into the horticulture

produce marketing.

Marketing of Fruits and Vegetables

Marketing of horticultural crops is quite complex and is associated with several risks due to their perishable nature, seasonal production and bulkiness. The spectrum of prices from producer to consumer, which is an outcome of demand and supply transactions between various intermediaries at different levels in the marketing system, is also unique for fruits. Moreover, the marketing arrangements at different stages also play an important role in price levels at various stages viz. from farm gate to the ultimate user. These features make the marketing system of fruits to differ from other

agricultural commodities, particularly in providing time, form and space utilities. While the market infrastructure is better developed for food grains, fruits and vegetables markets are not that well developed and markets are congested and unhygienic. Hence, development of an efficient marketing system can help in reducing postharvest losses; enhances farmers’ realization; reduce consumer price; promote grading and food safety practices; induce demand-driven production; enable higher value addition and facilitate export.

The different channels that exist for marketing include:
• Farmer-trader-wholesaler-retailer-consumer
• Farmer-trader-retailer-consumer
• Farmer-trader-consumer
• Farmer-consumer.

Supply chain and need for a supply chain management 

Supply Chain Management includes management of the entire set of production, processing, distribution and marketing activities by which an end user is supplied with a desired end product. The supply chain development not only benefits the private sector but also creates spin-offs that stimulate social, economic and environmental sustainable development in the region. The advantages include; reduction of product losses in transportation and storage; increasing sales; dissemination of technology, capital and knowledge among the chain partners; better information about the flow of products, markets and technologies; transparency of the supply chain; tracking and tracing to the source; better control of product safety and quality; large investments and risks are shared among partners in the chain; productivity Improvement; high customer satisfaction; increased profit and on time delivery.

Factors affecting India’s Supply Chain Management

• Availability of cold storage: Availability of proper cold storage is one of the important factors in supply chain management. The growth of the cold storages in India is not uniform and adequate. The

shortage of cold storage capacity is resulting in over 30 percent of farm produce goes waste every year, more than 20% of produce from fields is lost due to poor post harvesting facilities and lack of cold chain infrastructure. The present supply chain that connects the farmers to both the organized, as well as the unorganized retail, is not efficient with many intermediaries and manual handling. This results in around 30 percent of wastages and also less remuneration for the farmers.

• Infrastructure for better connectivity: For transferring goods from one place to other connectivity plays a vital role. In India the road infrastructure is not so good so transferring food and other goods is a real big challenge. Thus to improve the efficiency of food supply chain more attention is needed on transport.

• Sorting and grading system: The sorting and grading methodology needs to be updated on scientific grounds as farmers do it themselves and they have very little knowledge about the processes. To improve the efficiency of the supply chain we need to improve the skills of the farmers.

• Handling and packaging: Most of the agriculture is in remote village areas and all the places are not provided with proper facilities of handling and packaging. Because of this lot of fruits and vegetables get spoiled, wasted and deteriorates in quality to be used in supply chain. Thus, proper training and knowledge has to be provided on handling and packaging.

• Market intelligence and linkages: Proper marketing and market intelligence provides efficient food supply chain and thus help in development of strong economy. It is essential to provide linkages

with actors in market chains.

• Policies of Government: The Governments play an important role in formulating the policies for agriculture, horticulture and food industry which includes farming, production, processing, distribution besides the financing and retailing these activities. There are several multitudes of Departments handled between both State and Central Governments. In view of the globalization of this industry, the decisions if are mutually reinforcing and consistent would be extremely productive.

Current scenario of supply chain in India: It is found that around 30–40 percent of fruits and vegetables are wasted due to post harvest losses and in value terms the loss is estimated to be 25%. Wastages at every stage of the food supply chain has resulted in low availability of fruits and vegetables for consumers and also its imports in-spite of India being second largest produce. The country has a huge opportunity to become a leading global food supplier only if it has an agile, adaptive, responsive and efficient supply chain. However, lack of infrastructure (cold storages, refer vans, cool chains, ripening chambers etc) has resulted in wastages. Some

of the other factors include, missing link between production and research system and consumers, capacity building market information, research and intelligence. Isolated functioning of various stake holders and the infrastructure connecting these partners is very weak. There is lack of demand estimation and technology applications such as cold chain logistic supply chains and product tracking and tracing. Lack system integration and presence of large number of unorganized retailers result in making unorganized supply chain practices further inefficient.

Measures for improving supply chain and its

effectiveness:

Improving the supply chain the following measures can be adopted. There has to be structural changes at different levels - farmers, intermediaries and consumer. The government, private, public-private partnership, cooperatives, technology providers, and even media can play a crucial role. Infrastructure like roads, transport, information and communication technology and cold storage are basic requirement for better results in supply chain.

• Demand forecasting: It is one of the important requirements for improving the effectiveness of supply chain. Poor forecasting demand can result in an imbalance between supply and demand. In some months vegetables are either not harvested from the fields due to lack of demand. In some reasons, produce is not available and thus results in prices increase.

• Coordination between farmers: Vertical coordination of farmers through FPOs, cooperatives, contract farming and retail chains would facilitate better delivery of output, reduce market risks, provide better infrastructure, attract more public interest, acquire better extension services, and create awareness regarding the prevailing and new technologies.

• Customized logistics: It is another important requirement to make logistic more effective. This

reduces the cost, facilitates the maintenance of quality of the produce and fulfills the requirements of targeted customers.

• Government policies: The State Government is providing subventions of Rs.1/- per KWH of electricity consumed by cold storages in the horticulture sector. Further, National Horticulture Board is providing a back ended subsidy of 25% (maximum of Rs.50 lakhs whichever is less) for construction/modernization of cold storage units. Cold storages are classified as Agro Food Processing Industry for providing incentives and concessions available to Agro Food Industry.

• Better Information system: It is required for better coordination among different stakeholders from farmers to consumers is the need of the hour. The internet and mobile communication can also be used to enable information and financial transfer between the stakeholders.

• Public private partnership: It is another important strategic solution. Supply chain like washing,

waxing, grading, sorting, packing, pre-cooling, handling facilities, insurance, finance, transport and processing facilities would add value to supply chain functioning.

• Establishment of food parks: This promotes agro and processing industries in cluster in area where there is predominant production of process able agriculture and Horticulture Products. These parks also provide the required infrastructural facilities.

Urban Farming a Promising Avenue for Food- Nutrient Security and Health Benefits

Introduction:

Food and nutrition security issues have wide reaching implications for people and their environments,

particularly in developing countries. Among the existing strategies to address these issues, promotion of urban farming can be an important consideration. Urban farming has been widely looked as a potential solution to the food-crisis faced by the increasing population in the cities. As we are aware that urban poverty is on rise and hence a concern for the development planning. It is believed that the urban farming can provide the urban poor with food, nutrition and a potential source of some income for development. The practice of urban farming can help in improving the urban environment and

reducing pressure on agricultural land. Urban farming

is also associated with some potential disadvantages, including the associated health risks and implications for the environment. The usage of urban waste-water which may contaminate the farm produce and intensive irrigation might lead to the spread of malaria and water borne diseases, as well as threatening already limited water supplies. Soil erosion and the intensive use of fertilizers and pesticides might also present health risks to urban populations and damage the environment. Given the current policy drive to promote urban farming, there is aneed to understand its effects on urban populations and their environments.

The experience of growing food through urban farming can be correlated with its consumption. People with more experience in growing food through urban farming are more likely to eat more healthy food. Urban farming can build safe, healthy and green environments in neighborhoods, schools and abandoned areas.

The emergence of urban farming:

The twenty-first century has often been described as ‘the first urban century’. Unprecedented migration of a large number of populations from rural areas to cities has led to the rapid growth of the cities. Furthermore, the growing population over the next few decades will be absorbed by the cities in low and middle-income countries, thus increasing the pressure on urban resources that are often already exhausted. Among the most pressing needs of any urban agglomeration is the question of urban food security and ensuring the right to food. Urban populations depend on the reliable and stable availability of food products, as well as affordable and convenient access to them. High levels of urban income poverty paired with rising food prices, however, often make the formal urban food supply system unaffordable and inaccessible to the urban poor. An informal food supply system, consisting of street vendors, informal markets, home-based enterprises as well as urban farming, exists alongside formal interventions. These informal networks predominantly satisfy the urban poor’s demand for easily accessible – though not often cheaper – foodstuffs. Urban farming has been recognized as one of the most beneficial and promising means of informal food production. Although urban farming has been an integral part of urban livelihood throughout human history, the concept has become more prominent in 1980s. Urban farming is portrayed as an important intervention to improve urban food security.

Urban farming:

Urban farming is nothing but a system of food production located within the city or in the peri-urban areas of the cities that helps in growing and distribution of a diversity of food and non-food products, through recycling of material resources, products and services found in and around the urban area, and in turn supplying human and material resources, products and services largely to that urban area. Urban farming involves food production in community gardens, backyard gardens, vacant sites, green houses, compound walls, fences, rooftops, balconies, windowsills, tank bunds, etc. This also includes other important systems such as aquaculture, hydroponics and shade nets.

Important dimensions of urban farming:

Urban farming is thought to increase food security through two main pathways: improved access to food and increased income. Home-grown foodstuffs increase the total amount of food available to a household and thus can prevent hunger and malnutrition. At the same time the availability of fresh, home grown food products, in particular fruits and vegetables, advances the nutritional status of household members and thereby improves health. Direct access to food often allows particularly poor households to consume a more diverse diet than they would otherwise be able to afford. Especially, animal husbandry is believed to provide an important source of animal protein, which is commonly limited in poor households’ diets due to income constraints. Dietary diversity and kilocalorie

consumption are the two main aspects which influence the outcome of improved nutrition.

Urban farming is assumed to create an ‘opportunity cost’ – domestic producers can either save income, via the consumption of home-produced foodstuffs that are cheaper to produce than to buy from the market, and/or increase income by selling or trading their products. Addressing urban food insecurity, therefore requires a balancing act between urban farming (the opportunity cost of producing your own food) and more efficient urban food markets thus making the food more cheaper.

The latter may be a result of urban or peri-urban farmers’ contributions to the markets. Higher cash income at the household level is then positively linked to food security as households are believed to have greater access to food products. This relationship, however, to large extent, depends on the calorie elasticity of income that is, the extent to which a change in income leads to a meaningful change in calorie intake. Households with low-income elasticity, for example, might not experience improved levels of nutrition linked to an increase in income. Given the low input costs of urban farming it is believed to have great potential in addressing urban poverty and food insecurity. It is also important to note that the potential for urban farming to improve food security depends on the inefficiency within the current system to allow scope for improvements. It will not in all cases be more economically efficient for households to grow their own food as opposed to engaging in other

productive activities or buying food from the market.

Health benefits of urban farming:

The value of health benefits associated with urban farming is many times not acknowledged. Urban farming leads to lots of physical exercise and indirectly the exercise related health benefits. It ensures enhanced consumption of more fresh fruits and vegetables produced by urban farming because of easy access. There will be improved dietary knowledge, practice and habits among the people involved in urban food production. It can also promote cooking of healthy foods at homes. The most important aspect of urban farming can be saving in money spent on buying fruits and vegetables apart from other food products produced in urban farming. Urban farming contributes to community food security. Apart from food and nutrition security it can contribute for the physical, mental, emotional, spiritual and social health of the individuals and the communities involved in farming apart from its contribution to the family income realized through the sale of the produce. Some of the studies have shown that gardening can reduce the risks of obesity, coronary heart diseases, glycemic control, diabetes and occupational injuries. Gardening can expand little or intensive amounts of energy. Even moderate forms of garden exercise increase muscle strength and endurance in activity reduced persons, including pregnant women, cancer survivors, and those generally sedentary. Gardening

can be a preferred form of exercise across age, gender, and ethnicity. Working in the urban farming activities, especially gardening can bring benefits of enhanced mental health, mental outlook and personal wellness of individuals. Cultivation of variety of crops in the gardens can trigger illness prevention and healing responses. The field of horticulture therapy can promote plant human relationships to induce relaxation and to reduce stress, fear, anger, blood pressure and muscle tension. Another important aspect of urban farming in schools can bring health effects on students along with the enhanced skills of food production. These gardens can be the nontraditional learning laboratories for the students who become familiar with the art of growing various crops, especially fruits and vegetables which are critical to reducing obesity and chronic diseases. Such of the school garden programs can develop passion among the students for gardening and can teach the students the hands on skills and lifetime hobby that provides exercise, mental stimulation and social interactions. The

urban community gardens can help overcome social, health and environmental justice challenges. It can help in the safe and pleasant neighborhoods promotion through the active lifestyles and outdoor exercises that counteract the physical passively associated with obesity epidemic.

Critics of urban farming:

Apart from the perceived absence of empirical evidence on urban farming, researchers have also pointed to urban health risks associated with urban farming and the implications of these for the environment. The usage of waste water, for example, is feared to contaminate produced food and intensive irrigation might lead to the spread of malaria and water borne diseases, as well as lowering the water table. Soil erosion and the intensive use of fertilizers and pesticides might also present health risks to urban populations, as well as cause environmental harm. Furthermore, both largeand small-scale food productions are associated with deforestation, draining of water reservoirs, etc. Urban farming often excludes the most vulnerable groups in society through a lack of legal tenure, capital and policy support. Land use planning in urban areas often implies that once land that has been used for urban agriculture rises in value, the land is removed from agricultural use. Only if and when city administrations set aside dedicated pieces of land for urban agriculture with low opportunity costs to those intending to use it, will potential users be able to use it for improved access to food or in order to generate income

Strategies for Addressing Issues Around Water

Introduction:

Water is a great gift of nature to the humanity and is an essential resource for all forms of life. It is essential for healthy economic, geopolitical, and environmental conditions around the world. Yet, due to population growth and mismanagement, the need for adequate, affordable drinking and irrigation water is a growing international crisis. Water is likely to become critically scarce resource in the future. Variations in climatic characteristics both in space and time can cause uneven distribution of precipitation, which can result in highly uneven distribution of available water resources leading to floods and droughts affecting the vast areas. Inter-basin transfer of water is one of the options for

mitigating the problems of the surplus and deficit basins in India. Proper management of groundwater resources should be an essential component of management. An accurate assessment of available surface and groundwater resources, considering the man-made changes, is needed for planning, design and operation of the water resources projects as well as for watershed management. There are several issues around water that need urgent attention. The important basic issues pertaining to water include shortage of water, surplus of water and quality of water. There is need to address these issues with a multipronged scientific approach. Some of the strategies that can be used in addressing the water issues are briefed in this paper.

Strategies for addressing water issues:

• Strategy for groundwater management: Ground water is an important source of water and it’s over exploitation is an important issue. To regulate the usage of ground water from over exploitation,

an effective groundwater management policy oriented towards promotion of efficiency, equity and sustainability is needed. The exploitation of groundwater resources should be regulated so as not to exceed the recharging possibilities, as well as to ensure social equity. Promotion of participatory action in rehabilitating tanks for recharging would go a long way in augmenting groundwater. The

role of government will have to switch from that of a controller of groundwater development to

that of a facilitator of equitable and sustainable development.

• Strategy for scientific flood management: Floods are the most frequently experienced natural

disasters in some states. The main causes for flood are inadequate capacity within river banks to

contain high flows, river bank erosion and silting of riverbeds. Other factors include landslides leading to obstruction of flow and change of the river course, retardation of flow due to tidal and backwater effects, poor natural drainage in the flood-prone area, cyclone and associated heavy rain storms or cloud bursts, snowmelt and glacial outbursts and dam break flow. Technical advancement in a well planned flood forecasting and warning system can help in providing higher lead time for timely action. It is well recognized that long-term solution of flood problems lies in creating appropriate flood storage in reservoirs. Media can play an important role in creating awareness on this issue.

• Strategy for conjunctive use of water: The main reason for excessive use of surface water as compared to groundwater is its much lower price for irrigation as compared to the cost incurred in

using groundwater. Water-logging problems could be overcome if conjunctive use of surface and

groundwater is made. Groundwater utilization for irrigation with water logged areas can help to lower the groundwater table and reclaim the affected soil. Over exploitation of groundwater has resulted in mining of groundwater. It is desirable that the irrigation needs for fulfilling crop water requirements should be satisfied by judicious utilization of available canal water in conjunction with groundwater so as to keep water table within the acceptable range.

• Strategy for drought management: The droughtprone area in the country is around 51.12mha and

drought management has to be given top priority. Robust and rainfall independent off-farm livelihood

opportunities may be targeted in the drought mitigation strategy. Conjunctive uses of surface and groundwater, aquifer recharge and watershed management with community participation are important. An integrated basin development approach is required for preparing the drought management plan before, during and after the occurrence of the drought.

• Strategy for water conservation: Water conservation is essential for better use and management of

water resources. On the demand side, a variety of economic, administrative and community-based

measures can help conserve water. Agriculture accounts for about 69 per cent of all water withdrawn, the greatest potential for conservation lies in increasing irrigation efficiencies. Just a 10 percent improvement in irrigation efficiency could conserve enough water to double the amount available for drinking. An important supplement to conservation is to minimize the wastage of water in domestic, agricultural and industrial usages. Prices of water for all uses has to be fixed, keeping in mind its economic value, control of wastage, and the ability of users to pay which will help in avoiding wastage and ensuring optimal use.

Strategy for rainwater harvesting: Different methods of rainwater harvesting need to be developed to suit the geographical and meteorological conditions in various parts of the country. Traditional rainwater harvesting, which is still prevalent in rural areas, is done by using surface storage bodies like lakes, ponds, irrigation tanks, temple tanks, etc. There is a need to recharge aquifers and conserve rainwater through water harvesting structures. In urban areas, rainwater will have to be harvested using rooftops and open spaces. Harvesting rainwater not only reduces the possibility of flooding, but

also decreases the community’s dependence on groundwater for domestic uses. Apart from bridging

the demand–supply gap, recharging improves quality of groundwater, raises water table in wells/

bore-wells and prevents flooding and choking of drains.

• Strategy for watershed management: For an equitable and sustainable management of shared water resources, flexible, holistic approach of  Integrated Water Resources Management is required, which can cater for hydrological variations in time and space and changes in socio-economic needs along with societal values. Watershed is the unit of management, where surface water and groundwater are inextricably linked and related to land use and management. Watershed management

aims to establish a workable and efficient framework for the integrated use, regulation and development of land and water resources in a watershed for socio-economic growth with local community participation.

• Strategy for land use planning and cropping pattern: Planning of land use, especially in new

land developments is important. Areas where water supply priorities are low can be planted with drought-resistant varieties of trees and crops. Considerable information exists on time distribution of water requirements for various crops and various planting dates. This knowledge is required to be integrated systematically with water supply probabilities to develop planting strategies. The selection of cropping pattern as per availability of water will reduce adverse impacts of drought on potential water consuming crops.

• Strategy for recycling and reuse of water: Another way to improve freshwater availability is by

recycling and reuse of water. Use of water of lesser quality, such as reclaimed waste water, for cooling and fire fighting is an attractive option for large and complex industries to reduce their water costs, increase production and decrease the consumption of energy. This conserves better quality waters for potable uses. Currently, recycling of water is not practised on a large scale in India and there is considerable scope and an incentive to use this alternative.

• Strategy for inter-basin water transfer: The vast variation, both in space and time, in the availability of water in different regions has created a food–drought–flood syndrome with some areas suffering from flood damages and other areas facing acute water shortage. Some states (Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra) face worst droughts and some states (Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal, Orissa and Assam) face severe flood problems. Inter-basin

transfer of water can be a long-term option to partly overcome the spatial and temporal imbalance of

availability and demand of water resources.

• Strategy for developing legal restrictions on water use: Brining provisions of legal restrictions

on use of water, mainly during the period of scarcity can be an important strategy. In India, a national water policy has policy directions for development and management of water resources and legal restrictions on proper utilization of groundwater resources. However, provision of legal restrictions should be carefully thought of and need mobilization of qualified water specialists to explore effective solutions. The legal strategies should be implemented with minimum probability of being

rendered ineffective by injunctions and law suits.

• Strategy for demand management for urban areas and industries: Demand management in urban areas and industries is another strategy which could be adopted to reduce demand in urban water supply or households and industries. The water conservation and reuse strategies should be planned at the time of setting up of a new industry to build on the conservation and reuse requirements from the beginning.

• Strategy for developing decision support system: One of the new trends in finding solution of water management problems has been to aggregate several models into integrated software, i.e.

knowledge based Decision Support System (DSS) that focuses on the interaction between the user and the data, models and computers. Automating the process with a DSS could effectively improve the water resources planning and management.

• Strategy for enhancing people’s participation and capacity building: For successful management of water resources, participation of different stakeholders and their capacity building on

different issues of water resources management is needed. Policy decisions on any water resources

management should aim at improving knowledge, attitude and practices about the linkages between

health and hygiene, provide higher water supply service levels and to improve environment through

safe disposal of human wastes. Sustainable management requires decentralized decisions by giving authority and responsibility to communities to manage their natural resources.